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(We borrowed this text some time ago and have lost the reference.
If you know who wrote this, or indeed you wrote it, please
let us know so that we can give an appropriate citation)
Ideology
is a complex concept but, broadly speaking, refers to a set
of ideas which produces a partial and selective view of reality.
This in turn serves the interests of those with power in
society. It has its roots in the nineteenth-century writings
of Karl Marx, who argued that the property-owning classes
were able to rule by ideas which represented as natural the
class relationships of production, therefore justifying their
own wealth and privilege. These ideas could be found in all
areas of social knowledge, such as religion: for example,
the notion that it is 'God's will' that some are born rich
and that the poor will be rewarded in the next life. Thus
the notion of ideology entails widely held ideas or beliefs,
which may often be seen as 'common sense', legitimising or
making widely acceptable certain forms of social inequality
In so doing, ideologies are able to disguise or suppress
the real structure of domination and exploitation which exists
in society
Modern
writers (Marxist and others) have adapted and developed this
idea so that all belief systems or world views are thought
to be ideological. Although some ideas and beliefs seem more
'natural' or 'truthful', there is no absolute truth with
which to measure the accuracy of representations. 'What interests
those who analyse media representations is whose ideological
perspective is privileged. This raises the issue of power
inequalities. 'While Marxists have emphasised social class
differences, others have increasingly pointed to gender and
racial inequalities. 'What is agreed is that popular culture,
especially media output, is the site of a constant struggle
over the production of meaning. The media's role may be seen
as:
- circulating
and reinforcing dominant ideologies; or
- (less
frequently), undermining and challenging such ideologies.
What
is important to note is that the media and the audience are
both part of the process of producing ideological meaning.
Myth
Ideologies
'work' through symbolic codes, which represent and explain
cultural phenomena. Barthes (1973) labels this symbolic representation
as mythic, not in the traditional sense of being false (as
in fairy tales), but in the sense of having the appearance
of being 'natural' or 'commonsense', so that it is not questioned.
Advertising draws heavily on myth, using cultural signifiers
to represent qualities which can be realised through consumption
of the advertised product. Williamson (1978) has identified
some of the value systems which are represented in the language
of advertising. Particularly prominent in her analysis are
adverts which she claims invite us to reunite ourselves with
nature (even more relevant in the 'green' 1990s), and those
which attribute the power of science and technology to products.
In nearly all adverts, she sees two processes at work: first,
an appeal to our belief in the 'magical' powers of products
to solve our problems; and second, the divorce of production
from consumption. Hidden from our view are the capitalist
conditions from which advertised products originate (conditions
which Marxist writers see as alienating and exploitative
of workers).
The
American Dream: an ideological construction
What
does it mean to be American? The extent to which the people
of America can be considered a nation is problematic. A shared
sense of belonging and identity is certainly a real sentiment
for many people living in America. However, closer scrutiny
raises questions concerning divisions between various groups
comprising the American population, not least racism between
ethnic groups. And where America is taken as a national 'core',
further divisions can be identified along ethnic, religious,
regional and class lines. If there are so many alternative
sources of identity, how has the national sense of identity
achieved such a strong hold? While there is not the space
here to address this question adequately, we can examine
how the media may contribute towards the symbolic representation
of what it means to be American. It is in the context of
'us' and 'them' that a sense of national identity may be
articulated. International competition or conflict provides
a good opportunity for 'American values' to be asserted in
contrast to an enemy, real or imagined. The fight against
terrorism is a good example.
The
pluralist model
Instead
of seeing media content as narrowly ideological, pluralists
argue that there is diversity and choice. Just as society
comprises a range of interest groups and points of view,
so do the media. If and when certain values and beliefs predominate
in media output, then it is due to their being shared by
most of society. This is because media production is essentially
based on the need to please the audience. If audience needs
are ignored then the likely outcome is commercial failure.
In
the case of the monarchy, pluralists would argue that the
media's endorsement of the Queen simply reflects genuine
popular support. Furthermore, not all media coverage is necessarily
sympathetic. The tabloid newspapers have been sharply critical
of members of the royal family, exposing adultery and deceit
within the royal marriages, as well as questioning the Queen's
right to tax exemption and her response to the death of Princess
Diana. Even television has ridiculed the royal family in
programmes like Spitting Image and Pallas (a
spoof soap opera employing voice-overs dubbed on to news
footage of the royals).
Political
representations
It
is when the media represent political issues that the hegemonic
and pluralist perspectives can be clearly contrasted. The
question of political bias has been the focus of much academic
debate.
Propaganda
There
is general consensus that some political content in the media
qualifies as propaganda. In broad terms, propaganda is the
conscious manipulation of information in order to gain political
advantage. Historically, it has been most evident during
times of war or national crisis, when the need for national
unity has led governments to seek control over the media.
In such situations, dissenting or alternative views are usually
suppressed or marginalised.
Realism
It
has been discussed how the media mediate reality via various
recognised codes and conventions. Because of the intervening
technology it is impossible to gain first-hand direct experience
of the world via the media, no matter how 'transparent' their
representation of reality. Even live television coverage
of events, such as a football match, involves continuous
selection through the choice of camera perspective as well
as interpretation via the accompanying commentary and discussion
which anchor the meaning of the pictures.
Part
of the process of creating meaning is the degree to which
we, the audience, can recognise and identify with what is
being portrayed - the media text's credibility or realism.
We expect what we see, listen to or read to have some connection
with our own lives and experiences and the world we inhabit,
or to appear to be based upon some sort of recognisable reality
of the world 'out there'. This then helps us to identify
and understand the text and its meaning. We often judge how
successful this illusion or story is by measuring the text
against our own experiences, our own 'situated culture' and
biography. What is 'real' therefore can become a subjective
and controversial concept, where a text that one person perhaps
considers to be realistic may not be considered so by someone
else with another perspective. A programme that describes
all football fans as 'hooligans' may appear convincing to
someone who knows nothing about football fans except what
they read or see in the media, but to someone who has been
supporting a football club for many years this may seem to
be a very unfair and one-sided portrayal.
In
assessing the realism of a media text there is no single
measure which can be applied. Four distinctive criteria have
been identified as contributing toward a sense of realism.
Firstly, there is the surface realism. This means 'getting
the details right'. For example, a period costume drama should
have the characters wearing the clothes appropriate to that
period, and the houses should not be adorned with modern
accessories like television aerials or satellite dishes.
Considerable expense is often incurred ensuring that such
period drama precisely recreates the right environment, such
as in the popular police series Heartbeat set in the
1960s complete with steam trains and British motorbikes (although
the programme's signature tune is from the 1950s!).
The
second criterion refers to the 'inner' or emotional realism
of the characters and their motivation. This allows the audience
to identify with the situation and characters portrayed and
in particular 'feel' or 'share' the emotions that are an
essential part of the story-telling process; for instance,
the sadness in tearjerkers like Love Story or the
fear and suspense in films like Jaws or Jurassic
Park.
A
third criterion of realism concerns the logic or plausibility
of the plot or characters that appear appropriate to the
text's particular terms of reference. Viewers often complain
if well-established characters in soap operas suddenly shift
their typical behaviour pattern and act 'out of character'.
In their search for publicity and higher ratings, some British
soaps like Brookside and Emmerdale have introduced
a high quota of intensive dramatic incident such as a plane
crash, murders, and drug-based crime, which have led to criticisms
that these incidents undermine the sense of realism achieved
by the soaps' claim to represent ordinary everyday lives
and situations. Related to this is the notion that there
is some degree of consensus as to the nature of 'reality'
and 'truth'. Media texts which challenge certain 'commonsense'
or taken-for-granted assumptions, such as the honesty and
integrity of the legal and medical professions, may be rejected
by audiences as implausible or 'far fetched'.
The
fourth criterion of realism refers to the employment of technical
and symbolic codes that correspond with those recognised
and expected by the audience. We have learned to accept the
use of music in the background as a 'mood enhancer', but
only so long as it is discreet. Audience or 'canned' laughter
is the norm for situation comedies. These codes and conventions
change over time, especially as technical advances shift
our perceptions of what seems 'real'. Originally, silent
films were accompanied by a live piano player who musically
'signalled' the climax of a scene or speech, or the development
of the narrative was indicated by captions. The actors wore
heavy make-up and performed very theatrically. Contemporary
cinema audiences now expect to experience a radically different
form of realism made possible by sophisticated technological
innovations such as the use of computer-generated special
effects and 'surround sound' theatres. Indeed, the marketing
hyperbole would lead us to believe we are on the verge of
experiencing 'virtual reality'.
Therefore,
it is important to recognise that audiences do not apply
a unified set of standards to differing media texts in terms
of their realism. Depending on the respective media form
or genre, we apply varying modality judgements of the realism
of a text. Although we know that science fiction and cartoons
are not 'real', we suspend disbelief and adjust our perceptions
in accordance with the accepted codes and conventions of
such media categories. Consequently, an animated cartoon
comedy like The Simpsons is able to achieve a level
of realism equal, if not superior to, television situation
comedies which employ 'real' human subjects. However, if
the generic codes are not adhered to with some degree of
consistency, then audiences may well reject the realism of
the text. This is particularly apparent when genres are blended
together and it is not clear which mode of realism is dominant.
For example, Coprock, a 1980s American television police
series, alienated audiences by incorporating song and dance
numbers into the gritty police narrative. More successful
in juxtaposing codes from several genres, such as soap opera,
gothic horror and murder mystery was Twin Peaks which
became a cult television serial. Its constantly shifting
modes of realism mean it could be defined as a surreal text.
This
kind of generic playfulness is a feature of the postmodern
tendency found in many contemporary media texts. It can also
be detected in the ironic, parodic reworking of conventional
genres such as the television chat show (Mrs Merton, Dame
Edna Everage, etc). Audiences are increasingly invited to
witness the processes of media construction such as in the
regular shots of the production crew in the Big Breakfast
Show, the effect of which is to seemingly expose the
illusion of realism (although such 'exposure' is still carefully
controlled). Nevertheless, the dominant aesthetic is still
one in which media construction is disguised and the audience
(usually very willingly) is drawn into an ensuing seamless
reality
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